Role of exposure in adoption and intensity of tree planting practices among smallholder households in Rwanda

Agroforestry, widely promoted across Sub-Saharan Africa to restore degraded landscapes and improve livelihoods, has the potential to positively impact Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), specifically SDG15 (life on land) and contribute towards the achievement of SDG2 (food security) and other SDGs. However, despite substantial investment in agroforestry programs, evidence of program effectiveness in enhancing adoption is inadequate. This paper employed the augmented inverse probability weighting method to analyze the impact of exposure to agroforestry practices on the adoption and intensity of tree planting using panel household data from Eastern Rwanda. The findings show that exposure increased the probability of adoption by 7% ( p = 0.03). A higher probability of adoption (15%, p = 0.01) was observed in households that were exposed both before and after the baseline period, suggesting cumulative effects of exposure over time. Exposure modestly enhanced the diversity of trees and the number of trees in cropping fields, but farmers tended to adopt more exotic than indigenous species. A higher probability of adoption and higher tree numbers were observed when male household members were exposed, and seedling provision enhanced tree numbers and species among adopters. Our findings underscore the need for continuous engagement of farmers and targeted gender-sensitive interventions. We also recommend a more structured approach to training and information dissemination, and a focus seedling availability and a suitable policy environment.